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Bottom: schematic cross-section of a vertical ion-gated organic electrochemical transistor that is fully encapsulated and shielded from the biological environment. Top left inset: array of vertical ion-gated organic electrochemical transistors on a flexible substrate. Scale bar, 4 m. Top right inset: photograph of the implanted vertical ion-gated organic electrochemical transistor when used to map neurophysiological activity. Scale bar, 500 m.

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