Radar map of multiple objective analysis to assess the various functions of the rotations. In a , values are normalized. (+), positive variables, (–), negative variables. Equivalent yield re-expresses crop yield as equivalent to the grain yield of wheat; Economic benefit denotes the crop yield multiplied by its market price minus consumable cost; Nutrition yield includes 17 nutritional components of each crop such as crude protein, fat content, macro- and micro-elements, and vitamins 68 . Soil carbon sequestration denotes changes in soil carbon stock in the 0–90 cm layer from October 2016 to October 2022; Net GHG emissions denotes the net GHG budgets including direct and indirect GHG emissions minus soil carbon sequestration; Soil biodiversity is represented by the Shannon Index of bacterial and fungal communities; Soil health score is calculated from 10 indicators using the overall Cornell Soil Health Assessment (CSHA) matrix combined with PCA 81 , 82 , 83 . Treatment abbreviations: WM winter wheat–summer maize (control case), SpWM sweet potato→winter wheat–summer maize rotation, PWM peanut→winter wheat–summer maize rotation, SWM soybean→winter wheat–summer maize rotation, SmWM spring maize→winter wheat–summer maize rotation, RSWM ryegrass–sorghum→winter wheat–summer maize rotation. Source data are provided as a Source Data file.
