How distance affects costs for each resource when AEF is 1% in each region. Stationary capacity (that is, battery energy storage) has high up-front fixed costs (battery costs; siting, developer and interconnection costs; and fixed operations and maintenance costs) due to the duplicative battery investment. Relatively low variable costs keep the total cost of the stationary battery investment consistent as AEF and distance increases. A transmission line (Tx line) also has high fixed costs. These costs increase with distance between power sector regions, but relatively low variable costs keep the total cost consistent as AEF increases. RMES has the lowest up-front fixed costs, but rail network transport costs increase considerably with AEF ( a ) and distance between power sector regions ( b ).
