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Schematic representation of metabolic fuel cell (MFC)-powered insulin secretion byElectroβ cells. The power management circuit of the metabolic fuel cell controls the conversion of blood glucose into electrical energy and provides the electrical field for the stimulation of the rapid vesicular insulin release byElectroβ cells.Electroβ are pancreatic β-cells engineered for constitutive expression of the L-type voltage-gated calcium channel (Cav1.2) and the inwardly rectifying potassium channel (Kir2.1) as well as proinsulin to enable exclusive insulin release in response to electrical field-mediated depolarization.

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