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Schematic of the bottom-up suffusion mechanism responsible for surface failure from condensation filling, coalescence (black arrow) and freezing. Water, ice slush and solid ice are represented by blue shading, light blue shading and hatching, respectively. All experiments (N = 24) showed bottom-up suffusion. Employed surfaces: D2 and D5 with pillar heights of 25 and 40 m (n = 6) (see Supplementary Table 1 for details).

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