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Illustration of regressions performed by standard GWAS and the unified estimator. Through linear imputation of parental genotypes, the unified estimator incorporates singletons into the FGWAS regression, enabling use of the same sample as standard GWAS to estimate the parameter vector [ δ , α ] T . Although the design matrix for the singleton subset (in blue) in FGWAS is collinear, the design matrix for the related sample subset (in red) is not, so the stacked design matrix is not collinear.

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