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Solid lines and arrows represent processes included in this study using a combination of terrestrial biosphere and atmospheric chemistry modelling. The direct radiative forcing estimates represent the climatic effects of anthropogenic Nr. The uncertainty range of each pathway is estimated on the basis of the 1 standard deviation across the NMIP2 ensemble members as well as the uncertainties in atmospheric chemistry (Supplementary Information Section 1.2 ). Orange and dark blue solid arrows on the top indicate the warming or cooling effects, respectively. The image of the tree was created using BioRender.com.

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